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Lookup NU author(s): Professor Tiago OuteiroORCiD, Professor Nicola PaveseORCiD
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0).
© 2026 by the authors. The “Neuroimaging and Pathology Biomarkers in Parkinson’s Disease” course held on 12–13 September 2025 in Milan, Italy, convened an international faculty to review state-of-the-art biomarkers spanning neurotransmitter dysfunction, protein pathology and clinical translation. Here, we synthesize the four themed sessions and highlights convergent messages for diagnosis, stratification and trial design. The first session focused on neuroimaging markers of neurotransmitter dysfunction, highlighting how positron emission tomography (PET), single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) provided complementary insights into dopaminergic, noradrenergic, cholinergic and serotonergic dysfunction. The second session addressed in vivo imaging of protein pathology, presenting recent advances in PET ligands targeting α-synuclein, progress in four-repeat tau imaging for progressive supranuclear palsy and corticobasal syndromes, and the prognostic relevance of amyloid imaging in the context of mixed pathologies. Imaging of neuroinflammation captures inflammatory processes in vivo and helps study pathophysiological effects. The third session bridged pathology and disease mechanisms, covering the biology of α-synuclein and emerging therapeutic strategies, the clinical potential of seed amplification assays and skin biopsy, the impact of co-pathologies on disease expression, and the “brain-first” versus “body-first” model of pathological spread. Finally, the fourth session addressed disease progression and clinical translation, focusing on imaging predictors of phenoconversion from prodromal to clinically overt stages of synucleinopathies, concepts of neural reserve and compensation, imaging correlates of cognitive impairment, and MRI approaches for atypical parkinsonism. Biomarker-informed pharmacological, infusion-based, and surgical strategies, including network-guided and adaptive deep brain stimulation, were discussed as examples of how multimodal biomarkers may inform personalized management. Across all sessions, the need for harmonization, longitudinal validation, and pathology-confirmed outcome measures was consistently emphasized as essential for advancing biomarker qualification in multicentre research and clinical practice.
Author(s): Cilia R, Arnaldi D, Ballanger B, Ceravolo R, De Micco R, Del Sole A, Eleopra R, Endo H, Fasano A, Hoenig MC, Horsager J, Lehericy S, Leta V, Moda F, Nolano M, Outeiro TF, Parkkinen L, Pavese N, Quattrone A, Ray NJ, Reich MM, Rektorova I, Strafella AP, Tagliavini F, Tessitore A, van Eimeren T
Publication type: Article
Publication status: Published
Journal: Brain Sciences
Year: 2026
Volume: 16
Issue: 1
Online publication date: 18/01/2026
Acceptance date: 13/01/2026
Date deposited: 17/02/2026
ISSN (electronic): 2076-3425
Publisher: MDPI
URL: https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci16010110
DOI: 10.3390/brainsci16010110
Data Access Statement: No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is not applicable to this article. The present manuscript is based on the lectures delivered during the "Neuroimaging and Pathology Biomarkers in Parkinson’s Disease" course, held on 12–13 September 2025 in Milan, Italy. Access to the original lecture materials is restricted to course participants.
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